Was Paul imprisoned in Ephesus? Did he write Prison Epistles (captivity letters) like Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon from Ephesus? Perhaps even Philippians? Or were they written from Rome?

Arguments for Rome

• “The elite ancients, and even some ordinary ancients, were far more mobile than we often give them credit for.” (Witherington)
• Onesimus could have gone from Colossae to Rome for anonymity, or Onesimus may have been sent to Rome by Philemon.
• Luke would not have overlooked an Ephesus imprisonment in Acts.
• Colossians reflects later theological development.
• Tychicus is in Ephesus; why write to the Ephesians if Paul can speak through him?
• Paul would have been willing to change/delay plans of traveling to Spain in order to tend to pressing needs of existing churches.
• “Eusebius says that Paul was brought to Rome and that with him was Aristarchus.” (Porter)
• “Some of the persons named in Philemon (and Colossians) are associated with Rome in other New Testament writings: Mark (if it is the same Mark) is associated with Rome in 1 Peter 5:13; Luke is associated with Rome in 2 Timothy 4:11 (and in Acts 28:16 if Luke is the author of Acts); Demas is associated with Rome in 2 Timothy 4:10; Aristarchus is said to have been with Paul in both Ephesus (Acts 19:29) and Rome (Acts 27:2).” (Powell)

Arguments for Ephesus

• The short distance between Colossae and Ephesus is more plausible: It is a shorter distance for Onesimus (runaway slave) to travel. This also makes better sense of Paul requesting a room from Philemon, and anticipating lodging soon.
• Prison epistles have “air of nearness and intimacy.” Journeys in prison epistles “seem to be treated in a rather casual way.”
• Paul mentions extreme adversarial conditions and previous imprisonments in 1 & 2 Corinthians, Romans; these could not have included the later imprisonments in Caesarea or Rome.
• We should not assume Colossians is of later theological development. Colossians and the Corinthian correspondence have substantial parallels.
• Ephesians is circular letter, written not just to Ephesus.
• Aristarchus was dragged before crowd in Ephesus (Acts 19); Paul describes him as fellow prisoner in his letters.
• “Of the ten companions of Paul named in these letters, four (Timothy, Aristarchus, Tychicus, Luke) seem quite certainly to have been in Ephesus with Paul, three (Epaphroditus, Epaphras, Onesimus) could have been there much easier than in Rome, The other three could have been there as easily as in Rome, while for no one of the ten is there any evidence (save inference from these letters) that he was in Rome, at least in Paul’s time.” (Bowen)

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Deep work definition: “Professional activities performed in a distraction-free concentration that push your cognitive capabilities to their limit. These efforts create new value, improve your skill, and are hard to replicate.”

Deep work hypothesis: “The ability to perform deep work is becoming increasing rare at the same time it is becoming valuable in or economy. As a consequence the few who cultivate this skill and then make it the core of their working life will thrive.”

Attention residue: “Every time you switch your attention from one target to another and then back again, there’s a cost. This switching creates an effect that psychologists call attention residue, which can reduce your cognitive capacity for a non-trivial amount of time before it clears.”

Persistent attention residue: “If you constantly make “quick checks” of various devices and inboxes, you essentially keep yourself in a state of persistent attention residue, which is a terrible idea if you’re someone who uses your brain to make a living.”

Four rules for cultivating deep work:

1) Work deeply. Don’t wait for lots of free time. Schedule deep work blocks and protect them.

2) Embrace boredom. Frequently expose yourself to boredom. Don’t “bathe yourself in novel stimuli at the slightest hint of boredom.”

3) Quit social media. Don’t measure social media value only by advantages. Disadvantages outweigh them.

4) Drain the shallows. Shallow work doesn’t require uninterrupted concentration. Aggressively minimize optional shallow work.

• Front cover (First glance)
• Table of contents (statement of faith)
• Author blurbs (Leadership page)
• Flip through pages (recent sermons)
• Publisher (Affiliation, network, convention, denomination, association)
• Foreward at front, recommendations on back (Influences, pastor’s “likes” on FB, resource links)
• Reading the first few chapters (visiting for a few Sundays)
• Committing (joining church body life; expressing commitment in membership)

“For where two or three are gathered together in my name, I am there among them.” (Matthew 18:20)

Read in light of 18:15-19: Christ stands in unity with the gathered, recognized, identifiable church as it acts in agreement in receiving or removing believers from fellowship, after practicing due diligence through gradual escalation and protocol. Even if the church is three people big.

This does not mean that a church (acting properly?) can be a mere ad hoc or irregular or accidental gathering of believers, let alone one that has no regard for protocol, due diligence, measures of escalation, or awareness of membership.

As I survey the landscape of literature concerning the eternal functional subordination of the Son I see five basic views:

1. The Son never submits to the Father, even after the incarnation. Authority and submission are seen as incompatible with intimacy and love and the kingdom of God.
2. The Son submits to the Father only after the incarnation. The incarnation itself is not an act of obedience. Obedience is only creaturely.
3. The Son submits to (or at least obeys) the Father before the incarnation (e.g. in creating the world), but only economically and ad extra (with respect to creation).
4. The eternal Son submits to the Father before creation and ad intra (in the internal life of God) and this is grounded in the Son’s eternal generation from the Father.
5. The eternal Son submits to the Father before creation, but this is agnostic to or in lieu of eternal generation.

Views 3-5 agree that the incarnate Son’s willing submission (or obedience) is suitable or fitting in light of his eternal Sonship, of his “filial identity.”

Views 4-5 see the Father’s primacy of authority as a personal property and not an essential divine attribute.

Update (Oct 5, 2021). Matthew Barrett describes a spectrum of views:

I very much affirm and teach (1) eternal generation, (2) one divine will in the triune God, and (3) two wills in Christ incarnate (dyothelitism). However, affirming these three doesn’t automatically put me in a “camp.” So hold off your assumptions. Those who have read the Ware/Starke book (and Fred Sanders’ review of it) will recognize that just as there is diversity among those who reject eternal submission, so too is there diversity among those who affirm eternal submission in the Trinity (something carelessly overlooked by the initial responses). This means, then, that some affirm all three of the above points but still see some place for “obedience” or “submission” (some prefer different words) in the Trinity in eternity. In other words, there is a spectrum.

About this spectrum, it’s obvious by now that there are two polar opposites of the spectrum: (1) Those who reject eternal generation, one will in the Trinity, and two wills in Christ and by consequence go the route of a (soft?) social trinitarianism, and, on the other end of the spectrum, those who (2) affirm the three previous beliefs but see absolutely no place for the obedience and submission of the Son to the Father in eternity. I do not align with either polar opposite and my reasons have to do, at least in part, with the pactum salutis…

I think that those who reject any and all forms of obedience in the Godhead in eternity overreact (understandably to the social trinitarianism they see). I agree with them in their affirmation of eternal generation, one divine will in the Trinity, dyothelitism Christology; however, to go to the other extreme and say that there is absolutely no place for obedience in eternity is a problem precisely because it ignores the biblical reality of the covenant of redemption.

From Observations Concerning the Scripture Oeconomy of the Trinity, and Covenant of Redemption (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1880), 21-36. Quoted in Reformed Reader, edited by William Stacy Johnson and John H. Leith. Text taken from here. (Update: I found it here too. See also here.)

“He by whom all things were made
was made one of all things.
The Son of God by the Father without a mother
became the Son of man by a mother without a father.
The Word Who is God before all time
became flesh at the appointed time.
The maker of the sun
was made under the sun.
He Who fills the world
lay in a manger,
great in the form of God
but tiny in the form of a servant;
this was in such a way that
neither was His greatness diminished by His tininess,
nor was His tininess overcome by His greatness.”

Augustine, Sermon 187

“Nothing was so necessary for raising our hope as to show us how deeply God loved us. And what could afford us a stronger proof of this than that the Son of God should become a partner with us of human nature?”

Augustine

“Man’s maker
was made man,
that He, Ruler of the stars,
might nurse at His mother’s breast;
that the Bread
might hunger,
the Fountain
thirst,
the Light
sleep,
the Way
be tired on its journey;
that the Truth
might be accused of false witness,
the Teacher
be beaten with whips,
the Foundation
be suspended on wood;
that Strength
might grow weak;
that the Healer
might be wounded;
that Life
might die.”

– Augustine, Sermons 191.1

“Man exalted himself and fell;
God humbled himself and raised him up.
Christ’s lowliness, what is it?
od has stretched out a hand to man laid low.
We fell,
he descended;
we lay low,
he stooped.
Let us lay hold and rise,
that we fall not into punishment.
So then his stooping to us is this: ‘Born of the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary.’ His very nativity too as man – it is lowly and it is lofty. Whence lowly? That as man he was born of men. Whence lofty? That he was born of a virgin.”

Augustine

Do me a favor? If you know of any more similar Augustine quotes, please email them to me.

(Hat tip to Tadd Winter, Spencer Smith, Jonathan Brown, and Cynthia Petermann for the quotes.)

See also:

“What is this novel mystery?
The judge is judged and is silent;
the invisible is seen and is not confounded;
the incomprehensible is grasped and is not indignant at it;
the immeasurable is contained in a measure and makes no opposition;
the impassible suffers and does not avenge its own injury;
the immortal dies and complains not;
the celestial is buried and bears it with an equal mind.”
– Alexander of Alexandria, Epistles on the Arian Heresy, ANF, vol. 6, VI

“There is only one physician, who is both flesh and spirit, born and unborn, God come in flesh, true life in death, both from Mary and from God, first subject to suffering and then beyond it, Jesus Christ our Lord.” (Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians, Chapter 7).

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“There is therefore one and the same God, the Father of our Lord, who also promised, through the prophets, that He would send His forerunner; and His salvation—that is, His Word—He caused to be made visible to all flesh, [the Word] Himself being made incarnate, that in all things their King might become manifest.” (Irenæus, Against Heresies, 3.9.1)

In the NT the term “apostle” is used in three different ways.

First, there are the Twelve that Jesus named “apostles” (Matt 10:2–4 = Mark 3:16–19 = Luke 6:13–16; Acts 1:13). This seems to refer to the office of the apostle. Acts 1:21–22 indicates that to qualify as an apostle one must have been with the Lord in his earthly ministry and must have witnessed his resurrection body (Acts 1:21–22; 4:33; 2 Pet 1:16; 1 John 1:1). The witness of the Twelve to Christ’s resurrection is affirmed by Paul (1 Cor 15:5).

Second, there were apostles in addition to the Twelve. There were Barnabas (Acts 14:4, 14; 1 Cor 9:5–7), James, the Lord’s brother (1 Cor 15:7; Gal 1:19), and Apollos (1 Cor 4:6, 9), probably Silvanus (1 Thess 1:1; 2:6 [GT 2:7]), Titus (2 Cor 8:23), Epaphroditus (Phil 2:25), and possibly Andronicus and Junia(s) (Rom 16:7). Paul mentions James and all the apostles (1 Cor 15:7) as distinct from Peter and the Twelve (15:5). In Gal 1:18–19 Paul states that when he went up to Jerusalem he visited Peter and he did not visit other apostles except James, the Lord’s brother. Hence, Paul recognized apostles beyond the Twelve. These are most likely those who were endowed with the gift of apostleship because they did not meet the above mentioned qualifications for the office.

Third, there was Paul who was an apostle (1 Cor 9:1; 15:9) and yet had not been with Jesus in his earthly ministry but did, however, see the Lord in his resurrection body. Hence, he claimed that he was born out of due season (1 Cor 15:8). Rather than trying to include him in either of the two categories above, it is best to see Paul as an exception to the rule and make a third category. It seems that he had the office of an apostle for the following reasons: (1) he used authority as an apostle (1 Cor 4:9; 9:1, 5; 11:5; 12:11–12); (2) he performed miracles (Acts 13:8–11; 14:3; 19:11; 2 Cor 12:12) that seemed to be done by those who had the office (Acts 2:43; 5:15–16; Heb 2:4); (3) his laying on of hands brought the Holy Spirit to the believers (Acts 19:6) such as happened to Peter (Acts 8:17); and (4) his greetings in most all of his letters (see passages above) are similar to those of Peter (1 Pet 1:1; 2 Pet 1:1). It would not be likely that he would have referred to himself as an apostle in his formal greetings if he had only the gift. Thus, this third category is an exception exclusive to Paul.

Hoehner, H. W. (2002). Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary (pp. 134–135). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Emphasis and paragraphing mine.

Apostles

• “The term ‘apostle’ was originally used as an adjective, describing a dispatch that was usually made by sea. It could also designate the thing that was sent out.” (Lexham Bible Dictionary)
• In the New Testament the term “apostle” refers to an authorized person sent on a special mission. He is a messenger, envoy, ambassador, or an emissary. He is an official delegate of Jesus Christ.
• The 1st category of apostles: The Twelve. Called, authorized, and sent (Matthew 10:1-4). Mission extended (Matthew 28:18–20).
• Matthias replaced Judas. The candidates considered had to fit a special criteria: they had been with Christ from the beginning of his ministry and they were eye-witnesses of the risen Christ (Acts 1:21–26).
• This replacement was unique.
  • “Peter explained that the reason for a new apostle was that Judas had apostatized and abandoned his office (Acts 1:16-17, 20, cf. 1:25), not that Judas had merely died (52, 179). The prayer of the disciples in Acts 1:24-25 “is not a set prayer such as the Lord’s Prayer or prayers in a liturgical setting, but a unique prayer on a specific and unrepeatable occasion” (75). “In the immediate context in the Book of Acts, the appointment of Matthias as the twelfth apostle prepares the way for the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost. Zwiep argues (172–73), correctly I think, that in this context the appointment of Matthias was necessary so that Israel’s believing community could be fully represented by twelve men corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel (Luke 22:28-30). “There is more, but Zwiep’s thorough monograph on the Matthias passage—one of the very few such monographs ever published—confirms that Luke did not view Matthias’s appointment as [precedent] for an ongoing institutional office of apostle. To the contrary, the twelve apostles were a unique group of men whom Christ had chosen to fulfill a unique, eschatological role in redemptive history.” (Robert Bowman’s review of a book by Arie W Zwiep)
• The 2nd category of apostle: The one untimely born, Paul. He is a literal eyewitness of the risen Christ, and considered himself the last in an exclusive group (1 Corinthians 15:4–11). Paul is very clear that he did not receive his apostolic authority or commission from another apostle (Galatians 1:1, 2:1-10).
• The 3rd category of apostle: A broader, more generic sense of messenger.
  • “As for Titus, he is my partner and fellow worker for your benefit. And as for our brothers, they are messengers [Greek: apostles] of the churches, the glory of Christ.” (2 Corinthians 8:23) These were part of a church-endorsed, church-sent effort to establish other churches in areas that had not been reached. Today we have a similar category: missionaries. “There were Barnabas (Acts 14:4, 14; 1 Cor 9:5–7), James, the Lord’s brother (1 Cor 15:7; Gal 1:19), and Apollos (1 Cor 4:6, 9), probably Silvanus (1 Thess 1:1; 2:6 [GT 2:7]), Titus (2 Cor 8:23), Epaphroditus (Phil 2:25), and possibly Andronicus and Junia(s) (Rom 16:7). Paul mentions James and all the apostles (1 Cor 15:7) as distinct from Peter and the Twelve (15:5). In Gal 1:18–19 Paul states that when he went up to Jerusalem he visited Peter and he did not visit other apostles except James, the Lord’s brother. Hence, Paul recognized apostles beyond the Twelve.” (Hoehner, 135)
• The apostles were church planters.
  • “It seems then that the main function of an apostle is to establish churches in areas that have not been reached by others (Rom 15:20). They are God’s messengers to open up new territories for Christ.” (Hoehner, 542)
• The apostles and prophets were the pioneers to initially reveal the mystery of the gospel, “that the Gentiles are fellow heirs.” (Ephesians 3:4-6)
• The the message and authority of the apostles (particularly the Twelve and Paul) was validated by significant miracles.
  • “The signs of a true apostle were performed among you with utmost patience, with signs and wonders and mighty works.” (2 Corinthians 12:12)
• The apostles and prophets laid an initial foundation that the rest of the household of God would build on / grow into (Ephesians 2:19-21).
• Paul, Peter, and Jude exhort their readers to remember, teach, and contend for the apostolic deposit of teaching definitively delivered to the saints (2 Timothy 2:2, 2 Peter 3:2, Jude 3).

Prophets

• They stimulated the church by telling the future (Acts 11:27-30).
• They spoke clear words of instruction from God (Acts 13:1–3).
• They encouraged and strengthened believers (Acts 15:30–35; 1 Corinthians 14:3).
• They disclosed the secrets of the heart (1 Corinthians 14:24-25).
• They were to prophesy in an orderly manner, and to be weighed by others (1 Corinthians 14:29–33; cf. 1 Thessalonians 5:21).
• They were secondary to the apostles and were to submit to the teaching of the apostles (Ephesians 4:11; 1 Corinthians 12:28; 1 Corinthians 14:37–38).
• They helped lay an initial foundation upon which the household of God could grow into and build upon (Ephesians 2:20).

Building on their foundation

How do we today build on and grow into the foundation of the apostles and prophets? Consider what Paul, Peter, and Jude exhort toward the end of their lives:

• “What you have heard from me in the presence of many witnesses entrust to faithful men, who will be able to teach others also.” (2 Timothy 2:2)
• “Remember the predictions of the holy prophets and the commandment of the Lord and Savior through your apostles.” (2 Peter 3:2)
• “Contend for the faith that was once for all delivered to the saints.” (Jude 3) Later Jude writes, “remember, beloved, the predictions of the apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ…” (Jude 17)

Summary: Entrust, teach, remember, contend for the foundational apostolic deposit definitively delivered to the saints.

(Addendum: “And now I commend you to God and to the word of his grace, which is able to build you up and to give you the inheritance among all those who are sanctified.” (Acts 20:32) He doesn’t tell them to pay attention to a succession of future prophets or apostles. He commends them to God’s word.)

Evangelists

• A basic definition: Evangelists preach the good news to those who have not heard it.
• Compare these two words:
  • εὐαγγελιστής (evangelist)
  • εὐαγγέλιον (gospel)
  • See the overlap?
• Philip was called an evangelist (Acts 21:8).
• Philip preached to crowds (Acts 8:4-8). God used miracles to help him draw a crowd!
• Philip practiced Spirit-led individual stranger-evangelism (Acts 8:26-40).
• Paul tells Timothy, a younger man left behind to help stabilize churches with church leadership, to do the work of an evangelist: “As for you, always be sober-minded, endure suffering, do the work of an evangelist, fulfill your ministry.” (2 Timothy 4:5)
• Paul tells this same Timothy to avoid quarreling, but yet to persist in teaching and correct his opponents, and to do so kindly and patiently (2 Timothy 2:22–26).
• Evangelists preach with clarity what Old Testament prophets inquired about and what angels longed to look at. What they anticipated we evangelists get to announce (1 Peter 1:10–12).

The Jesus-movement was otherwise (more internally?) simply called “the Way” (Acts 9:2, 19:9, 19:23, 24:14, 24:22).